Plant Science (PLS) College of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences

PLS 001 — Agriculture, Nature & Society (3 units)

Starting Summer Session 1 2025, this course is no longer offered.

Course Description: Multiple perspectives and connections between natural sciences, social sciences, and agriculture. Emphasizes agriculture's central position between nature and society and its key role in our search for a productive, lasting and hospitable environment. Several full-period field trips provide hands-on learning.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 2 hour(s), Discussion/Laboratory 1 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed AMR 001. (Former AMR 001.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 002 — Botany & Physiology of Cultivated Plants (4 units)

Course Description: Holistic introduction to the underlying botanical and physiological principles of cultivated plants and their response to the environment. Includes concepts behind plant selection, cultivation, and utilization. Laboratories include discussion and interactive demonstrations.

Prerequisite(s): High school course in biology and chemistry recommended.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Discussion/Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have complete AMR 002. (Former AMR 002.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Scientific Literacy (SL).

PLS 003 — Seminar: Overview of the Plant Sciences Major (1 unit)

Course Description: Introduction to topics covered in the core courses and areas of specialization within the Plant Sciences major. Research and internship opportunities and potential career paths in plant breeding, crop management and ecology, horticulture, precision agriculture, crop quality and safety, ecosystem management and restoration, and related fields.

  • Learning Activities: Seminar 1.5 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Pass/Not Passed only.

PLS 006 — Flower Power; Art & Science of Flowers & Their Uses (2 units)

Course Description: Introduction to the art and science of using and growing flowers to harness the power that is represented by their aesthetic beauty. Handling, production, arranging, breeding and marketing of flowers. Emphasis on potted plants and cut-flowers.

Prerequisite(s): High school biology.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture/Discussion 2 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.
  • General Education: Arts & Humanities (AH) or Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 006V — Flower Power; Art & Science of Flowers & Their Uses (2 units)

Course Description: Introduction to the art and science of using and growing flowers to harness the power that is represented by their aesthetic beauty. Handling, production, arranging, breeding and marketing of flowers. Emphasis on potted plants and cut-flowers.

Prerequisite(s): High school biology.

  • Learning Activities: Web Virtual Lecture 1 hour(s), Web Electronic Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: P/NP only.
  • General Education: Arts & Humanities (AH) or Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 007 — Just Coffee: The Biology, Ecology & Socioeconomic Impacts of the World’s Favorite Drink (4 units)

Course Description: Coffee used as a case study to examine biological, ecological and social factors influencing sustainability of farming systems and how food production systems impact human well-being.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE) or Social Sciences (SS); Writing Experience (WE).

PLS 007V — Just Coffee: The Biology, Ecology & Socioeconomic Impacts of the World's Favorite Drink (4 units)

Course Description: Coffee used as a case study to examine biological, ecological and social factors influencing sustainability of farming systems and how food production systems impact human well-being.

  • Learning Activities: Web Virtual Lecture 3 hour(s), Web Electronic Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE) or Social Sciences (SS); Writing Experience (WE).

PLS 012 — Plants & Society (4 units)

Course Description: Dependence of human societies on plant and plant products. Plants as resources for food, fiber, health, enjoyment and environmental services. Sustainable uses of plants for food production, raw materials, bioenergy, and environmental conservation. Global population growth and future food supplies.

Prerequisite(s): High school biology.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Extensive Writing 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have complete PLB 012. (Former PLB 012.)
  • Cross Listing: SAS 012.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE) or Social Sciences (SS); Writing Experience (WE).

PLS 013 — Chocolate, Covered: The Past, Present, & Future of Cacao (3 units)

This version has ended; see updated course, below.
Course Description: Multidisciplinary perspectives on the crop that gives us chocolate. History, genetics, agronomy, sensory science, and economics of cacao production.

Prerequisite(s): High school biology.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 2 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Scientific Literacy (SL).
  • PLS 013 — Chocolate, Covered: The Past, Present, & Future of Cacao (2 units)
  • Course Description: Multidisciplinary perspectives on the crop that gives us chocolate. History, genetics, agronomy, sensory science, and economics of cacao production.
  • Prerequisite(s): High school biology.
  • Learning Activities: Lecture 1 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: P/NP.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE) or Social Sciences (SS).
  • This course version is effective from, and including: Winter Quarter 2025.

PLS 015 — Introduction to Sustainable Agriculture (4 units)

Course Description: Multidisciplinary introduction to agricultural sustainability with a natural sciences emphasis. Sustainability concepts and perspectives. Agricultural evolution, history, resources and functions. Diverse agricultural systems and practices and their relative sustainability. Laboratories provide direct experience with selected agricultural practices and systems.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 021 — Application of Computers in Technology (3 units)

Course Description: Concepts of computing and applications using personal computers, spreadsheets, database management, word processing and communications.

Prerequisite(s): High school algebra.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 2 hour(s), Discussion/Laboratory 2 hour(s).
  • Enrollment Restriction(s): Not open for students who have completed PLS 021V or AMR 021. (Former AMR 021.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Visual Literacy (VL).

PLS 021V — Application of Computers in Technology (3 units)

Course Description: Concepts of computing and applications using personal computers, spreadsheets, database management, word processing and communications.

Prerequisite(s): High school algebra.

  • Learning Activities: Web Virtual Lecture 2 hour(s), Web Electronic Discussion 2 hour(s).
  • Enrollment Restriction(s): Not open for students who have taken PLS 021.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Visual Literacy (VL).

PLS 022 — Introductory Plant Biophysics (4 units)

Course Description: Introduction to quantitative and physico-chemical principles of importance in the plant sciences.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • This course version is effective from, and including: Fall Quarter 2024.

PLS 049 — Organic Crop Production Practices (3 units)

Course Description: Principles and practices of organic production of annual crops. Including organic crops, soil, and pest management, cover cropping, composting, seeding, transplanting, irrigation, harvesting and marketing.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 1 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed AMR 049. (Former AMR 049.)
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 092 — Internship (1-12 units)

Course Description: Work experience on or off campus in subject areas pertaining to plant and environmental sciences. Internship supervised by a faculty member.

  • Learning Activities: Internship 3-36 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated.
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.

PLS 098 — Directed Group Study (1-5 units)

Course Description: Directed group study.

Prerequisite(s): Consent of instructor; primarily for lower division students.

  • Learning Activities: Variable 3-15 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated.
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.

PLS 099 — Special Study for Undergraduates (1-5 units)

Course Description: Special study for undergraduates.

Prerequisite(s): Consent of instructor; primarily for lower division students.

  • Learning Activities: Variable 3-15 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.

PLS 100A — Metabolic Processes of Cultivated Plants (3 units)

Course Description: Principles of energy capture and photosynthesis, water use, and nutrient cycling. Conversion of these resources into products (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and other chemicals) by plants. Emphasis on the relationships between environmental resources, plant metabolism and plant growth.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 002C; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 100AL — Metabolic Processes of Cultivated Plants Laboratory (2 units)

Course Description: Techniques and instruments used to study plant metabolic processes, including water relations, respiration, photosynthesis, enzyme kinetics, microscopy, immunochemistry, and nitrogen fixation. Quantitative methods, problem solving, and practical applications are emphasized.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 100A (can be concurrent); or the equivalent.

  • Learning Activities: Discussion/Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 100B — Growth & Yield of Cultivated Plants (3 units)

Course Description: Principles of the cellular mechanisms and hormonal regulation underlying plant growth, development, and reproduction. Emphasis on how these processes contribute to the harvestable yield of cultivated plants and can be managed to increase crop productivity and quality.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 100A; or the equivalent of PLS 100A.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 100BL — Growth & Yield of Cultivated Plants Laboratory (2 units)

Course Description: Laboratory exercises in plant growth and development and their regulation, including photomorphogenesis, plant growth regulators, plant anatomy, seed germination, fruit ripening and senescence. Includes field trips to illustrate relationships to cropping and marketing systems.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 100B (can be concurrent); or equivalent.

  • Learning Activities: Discussion/Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 100C — Environmental Interactions of Cultivated Plants (3 units)

Course Description: Principles of plant interactions with their physical and biological environments and their acquisition of the resources needed for growth and reproduction. Emphasis on how management practices and environmental conditions affect crop productivity.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 100A; or the equivalent of PLS 100A.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 100CL — Environmental Interactions of Cultivated Plants Laboratory (2 units)

Course Description: Techniques and instruments used to study plant interactions with their physical and biological environments, including light responses, transpiration, microclimatology, nutrient availability and utilization, biomass accumulation. Quantitative methods and modeling are emphasized.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 100C (can be concurrent).

  • Learning Activities: Discussion/Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 101 — Agriculture & the Environment (3 units)

Course Description: Focus on the interaction between agriculture and the environment to address the principles required to analyze conflict and develop solutions to complex problems facing society.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed AMR 101. (Former AMR 101.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Scientific Literacy (SL).

PLS 105 — Concepts in Pest Management (3 units)

Course Description: Introduction to the ecological principles of integrated pest management, biology of different classes of pests and the types of losses they cause, population assessment, evaluation of advantages and disadvantages of different techniques used for pest management, IPM programs.

Prerequisite(s): CHE 008B; (PLS 002 or BIS 002B or BIS 002C).

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 2 hour(s), Discussion/Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed AMR 105. (Former AMR 105.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 110 — Crop Management Systems for Vegetable Production (4 units)

Course Description: Horticultural principles applied to production and management systems for vegetable crops. Laboratory and discussion illustrate efficient field management and resource use practices.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or (BIS 002A, BIS 002B, BIS 002C).

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 2 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLS 110C. (Former PLS 110C.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 111 — Principles of Agronomic Crop Production Systems (4 units)

This version has ended; see updated course, below.
Course Description: Principles, practices and technologies of agronomic cropping systems, including crop systematics, physiology, agroecology, equipment, and management. Cropping systems analysis and integration of economic and ecological decision-making considerations involved in crop production. One weekend field trip required.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or (BIS 002A, BIS 002B, BIS 002C).

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLS 110A. (Former PLS 110A.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).
  • PLS 111 — Principles of Crop Production (4 units)
  • Course Description: Principles, practices and technologies of agronomic cropping systems, including crop systematics, physiology, agroecology, equipment, and management. Cropping systems analysis and integration of economic and ecological decision-making considerations involved in crop production.
  • Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or (BIS 002A, BIS 002B, BIS 002C).
  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLS 110A. (Former PLS 110A.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).
  • This course version is effective from, and including: Winter Quarter 2025.

PLS 112 — Forage Crop Production (3 units)

Course Description: Forages as a world resource in food production. Ecological principles governing the adaptation, establishment, growth and management of perennial and annual forages, including pastures, rangelands and hay; aspects of forage quality which affect feeding value to livestock.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 001C or BIS 002C; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed AMR 112. (Former AMR 112.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 113 — Biological Applications in Fruit Tree Management (2 units)

Course Description: Physiology, growth, development and environmental requirements of fruit trees and the cultural practices used to maintain them. Emphasis on the application of biological principles in the culture of commercially important temperate zone fruit tree species.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 001C or BIS 002C; or equivalent.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 1 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students that have completed PLB 173. (Former PLB 173.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 114 — Biological Applications in Fruit Production (2 units)

Course Description: Reproductive biology of tree crop species. Biological principles of fruit production, tree nutrition and orchard management for optimizing cropping. Laboratories emphasize hands-on work with orchard tree systems that are done specifically to produce the crop.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 001C or BIS 002C; PLS 113 recommended.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 1 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 174. (Former PLB 174.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 116 — Plant Morphology & Evolution (5 units)

Course Description: Structure and evolution of terrestrial plants. Evolutionary and developmental origins and adaptive significance of both reproductive and vegetative structures, in the context of current understanding of phylogenetic relationships.

Prerequisite(s): Introductory Plant Biology; e.g., BIS 002C, PLS 002.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Laboratory 4 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 116.
  • Cross Listing: PLB 116.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 120 — Applied Statistics in Agricultural Sciences (4 units)

Course Description: Application of statistical methods to design and analysis of research trials for plant, animal, behavioral, nutritional, and consumer sciences. Basic concepts and statistical methods are presented in lectures, laboratories emphasize data processing techniques, problem solving, and interpretation in specialized fields.

Prerequisite(s): Upper division standing.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Discussion/Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit for students who have completed AMR 120. (Former AMR 120.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Quantitative Literacy (QL).

PLS 123 — Introduction to Plant & Crop Systems Modeling (3 units)

Course Description: Modeling approaches commonly used in plant and crop applications. Fundamentals of how plant/crop models are developed and considerations regarding their limitations. Example model applications include degree-day and radiation-use-efficiency models of growth and yield, phenological models, and crop coefficients.

Prerequisite(s): college algebra/precalculus college physics recommended.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Enrollment Restriction(s): Restricted to upper division and graduate students.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Quantitative Literacy (QL).

PLS 124 — Introduction to Digital Agriculture (3 units)

Course Description: Introduction to quantitative approaches for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting environmental data used in plant sciences research. Remote sensing data for estimating plant structure, function and water status, spatial and temporal aspects of data, data science and machine learning, synthesizing complex, high-dimensional data.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 021 C or better (can be concurrent) or PLS 021 C or better (can be concurrent); PLS 120 C or better; PHY 007A; PHY 007B; PHY 007C; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture/Discussion 2 hour(s); Project.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 125 — Proximal & Remote Sensing of Plants (3 units)

Course Description: Quantitative approaches for collecting, analyzing and interpreting remote sensing data at scales from the leaf to the satellite in plant sciences research. Hands-on experience collecting, processing, and analyzing leaf and canopy-level remote sensing data.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 124 C or better (can be concurrent); PLS 021 C or better (can be concurrent or PLS 021V C or better (can be concurrent)); PHY 007A; PHY 007B; PHY 007C; PLS 120 C or better; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 1 hour(s); Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 127 — Systematics of Vascular Plants (5 units)

Course Description: Diversity, phylogeny, and taxonomy of lycophytes, ferns, and seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms), emphasizing relationships and distinguishing characteristics of families and genera represented in the California flora. Principles and methods of phylogeny reconstruction, classification, and plant nomenclature. Practice identifying plants to species using taxonomic keys.

Prerequisite(s): BIS 002C or PLS 002; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Laboratory 6 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): No credit if student has taken PLB/PLS 102 or EVE/PLB 108.
  • Cross Listing: EVE 127, PLB 127.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Visual Literacy (VL).

PLS 130 — Grassland Ecology (3 units)

Course Description: Comprehensive survey of grassland ecology including distributions of major grassland types; systematics; morphology, physiology, and diversity of grassland species; population, community, and ecosystem processes occurring in grasslands; the role of grazing, fire, and drought in grasslands; management and conservation.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 002B or BIS 002C; or consent of instructor; upper division standing.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 136Y — Management of Grazed Ecosystems (3 units)

Course Description: Principles and practices of managing grazing; grazing plan development; setting goals, herbivore nutritional demand, animal unit equivalents, determining ecological carrying capacities and stocking rate, livestock spatial and temporal distribution and grazing systems, herbivore – plant – soil interactions, livestock – wildlife interactions, conservation grazing practices, and the economics of grazing management.

Prerequisite(s): BIS 002B or BIS 002C or PLS 002 or SSC 010 or ANS 001 or WFC 010 or ESP 001; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture/Discussion 1 hour(s), Lecture/Lab 1 hour(s), Web Virtual Lecture 1 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).
  • This course version is effective from, and including: Winter Quarter 2025.

PLS 141 — Ethnobotany (4 units)

Course Description: Relationships and interactions between plants and people, including human perceptions, management, and uses of plants, influences of plants on human cultures, and effects of human activity on plant ecology and evolution. Concepts, questions, methods, and ethical considerations in ethnobotanical research.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 001C or BIS 002C.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Discussion/Laboratory 2 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 141. (Former PLB 141.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE) or Social Sciences (SS); Oral Skills (OL); Writing Experience (WE).

PLS 144 — Trees & Forests (4 units)

Course Description: Biological structure and function of trees as organisms; understanding of forests as communities and as ecosystems; use of forests by humans; tree phenology, photosynthesis, respiration, soil processes, life histories, dormancy, forest biodiversity, and agroforestry.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 001C or BIS 002C.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 144 or ENH 144 or ERS 144. (Formerly PLB 144, ENH 144, ERS 144.)
  • Cross Listing: ESM 144.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Visual Literacy (VL).

PLS 147 — California Plant Communities (3 units)

Course Description: Ecology, distribution, and species of California's plant communities. Environmental forces that determine these communities, the threats they face, and their conservation and restoration opportunities.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 002C.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture/Discussion 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 147. (Former PLB 147.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Visual Literacy (VL).

PLS 147L — California Plant Communities Field Study (1 unit)

Course Description: Visits to many of northern California's plant communities, from the north coast to the Central Valley to the Sierras. Discussion of community ecology and hands-on identification of species. Two Saturday and two three-day field trips required.

Prerequisite(s): (PLS 002 or BIS 002C); concurrent or previous enrollment in PLS 147.

  • Learning Activities: Discussion/Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 147. (Former PLB 147.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Visual Literacy (VL).

PLS 148 — Field Course: Flora of Northern California's Mountains (3 units)

Course Description: Diversity, taxonomy, ecology, evolution, and traditional cultural importance of the flora of the Cascade and Klamath mountain ranges. Conservation and management issues. Legal and ethical responsibilities of field botanists. Hands-on botanical field methods including plant identification, characterization of vegetation types, and rare plant surveys. Field course offered the last two weeks of July, based at Lassen Volcanic National Park.

Prerequisite(s): Consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture/Discussion 5 hour(s), Laboratory 5 hour(s), Fieldwork 25 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.

PLS 150 — Sustainability & Agroecosystem Management (4 units)

Course Description: Interdisciplinary analysis of agricultural production and food systems with primary emphasis on biophysical processes. General concepts governing the functioning of temperate and tropical agroecosystems in relation to resource availability, ecological sustainability, and socio-economic viability. Comparative ecological analyses of agroecosystems.

Prerequisite(s): SSC 010; CHE 002A; (PLS 002 or BIS 001C or BIS 002C).

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed AMR 150. (Former AMR 150.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Oral Skills (OL); Scientific Literacy (SL).

PLS 152 — Plant Genetics (4 units)

Course Description: Basic principles of transmission genetics, cytogenetics, population and quantitative genetics, and molecular genetics. Practical aspects of genetic crosses and analysis of segregating populations.

Prerequisite(s): BIS 001A or BIS 002A; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Discussion/Laboratory 1 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open to students who have completed PLB 152. (Former PLB 152.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 153 — Plant, Cell, Tissue & Organ Culture (4 units)

Starting Fall Quarter 2024, this course is no longer offered.

Course Description: Basic and applied aspects of plant tissue culture including media preparation, micropropagation, organogenesis, embryogenesis, anther culture, protoplast culture and transformation.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 001C or BIS 002C.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 2 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 153. (Former PLB 153.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 154 — Introduction to Plant Breeding (4 units)

This version has ended; see updated course, below.
Course Description: Principles, methods and applications of plant breeding and genetics to the improvement of crop plants. Illustration of how plant breeding is a dynamic, multidisciplinary, constantly-evolving science. Laboratory emphasizes hands-on experience in the basics of breeding through experiments.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 152 or BIS 101; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 154. (Former PLB 154.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).
  • PLS 154 — Introduction to Plant Breeding (4 units)
  • Course Description: Principles, methods and applications of plant breeding and genetics to the improvement of crop plants. Illustration of how plant breeding is a dynamic, multidisciplinary, constantly-evolving science. Laboratory emphasizes hands-on experience in the basics of breeding through experiments.
  • Prerequisite(s): PLS 152 or BIS 101 or BIS 101V; or consent of instructor.
  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 154. (Former PLB 154.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).
  • This course version is effective from, and including: Winter Quarter 2025.

PLS 157 — Physiology of Environmental Stresses in Plants (4 units)

Course Description: Stress concepts and principles; molecular, physiological, developmental and morphological characteristics enabling plants to avoid or tolerate environmental stresses; stress acclimation and adaptation processes; responses of wild and cultivated species to drought, flooding, nutrient deficiencies, salinity, toxic ions, extreme temperatures, etc.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 100C or PLB 111 or PLB 112 or ENH 102 or VEN 110.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 2 hour(s), Discussion 2 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 157. (Former PLB 157.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 158 — Mineral Nutrition of Plants (4 units)

Course Description: Evolution and scope of plant nutrition; essential elements; mechanisms of absorption and membrane transporters; translocation and allocation processes; mineral metabolism; deficiencies and toxicities; genetic variation in plant nutrition; applications to management and understanding ecological effects of nutrient availability or deficiency.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 100A or PLB 111 or ENH 102 or VEN 110.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 158. (Former PLB 158.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 160 — Agroforestry: Global & Local Perspectives (3 units)

Course Description: Traditional and evolving use of trees in agricultural ecosystems; their multiple roles in environmental stabilization and production of food, fuel, and fiber; and socioeconomic barriers to the adoption and implementation of agroforestry practices.

Prerequisite(s): (PLS 002 or BIS 001C or BIS 002C); (PLS 142 or PLS 150 or BIS 002B); or general ecology course in lieu of PLS 142 or PLS 150 or BIS 002B.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture/Discussion 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have previously taken AMR 160. (Former AMR 160.)
  • Cross Listing: IAD 160.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 162 — Urban Ecology (3 units)

Course Description: Application of fundamental concepts and approaches in landscape and ecosystem ecology to urban ecosystems. Ecological and social drivers and responses. Landscape heterogeneity, nutrient dynamics, invasive species, altered hydrology and climate, and pollution. Discussion of primary literature.

Prerequisite(s): ECL 200AN C- or better or ECL 200BN C- or better or ENH 160 C- or better or ESM 144 C- or better or ESP 100 C- or better or ESP 110 C- or better or ESP 121 C- or better or EVE 101 C- or better or EVE 104 C- or better or EVE 117 C- or better or EVE 120 C- or better or EVE 181 C- or better or PLB 117 C- or better or PLS 130 C- or better or PLS 144 C- or better or PLS 163 C- or better or SSC 112 C- or better; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture/Discussion 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Scientific Literacy (SL).

PLS 163 — Ecosystem & Landscape Ecology (4 units)

Course Description: Integration of concepts to understand and manage ecosystems in a complex and changing world. Emphasis on interactions among biotic, abiotic & human factors and changes over space/time. Local to global controls over water, carbon and nutrients across ecosystems/landscapes.

Prerequisite(s): ENH 160 C- or better or ESM 144 C- or better or ESP 100 C- or better or ESP 155 C- or better or EVE 101 C- or better or EVE 117 C- or better or PLB 117 C- or better or PLS 130 C- or better or PLS 144 C- or better or PLS 147 C- or better or PLS 150 C- or better or PLS 162 C- or better or SSC 100 C- or better or SSC 102 C- or better or SSC 109 C- or better or SSC 112 C- or better or HYD 124 C- or better or ECL 200AN C- or better or ECL 200BN (can be concurrent); or similar class with consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture/Discussion 3 hour(s), Project 1 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed ECL 201.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.

PLS 170A — Fruit & Nut Cropping Systems (2 units)

Course Description: Overview of production and handling systems of major pomological crops, analysis of current cultural and harvesting problems and concerns associated with commercial fruit growing.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 002C; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 1 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed AMR 170A. (Former AMR 170A.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 170B — Fruit & Nut Cropping Systems (2 units)

Course Description: Overview of production and handling systems of major pomological crops, including analysis of current cultural and harvesting problems and concerns associated with commercial fruit growing.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 002C; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 1 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed AMR 170B. (Former AMR 170B.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 171 — Principles & Practices of Plant Propagation (4 units)

Course Description: Principles and practices of propagating plants covering anatomical, physiological, and practical aspects.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 001C or BIS 002C.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 2 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 171. (Former PLB 171.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 172 — Biology and Quality of Harvested Crops (4 units)

Course Description: Overview of physiological and molecular processes related to the quality and safety of harvested crop products. Targeted approaches and technologies to improve/maintain crop quality and limit crop losses after harvest. Socioeconomic aspects of crop losses and food waste.

Prerequisite(s): BIS 002A; PLS 002; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Discussion/Laboratory 2 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 174 — Microbiology & Safety of Fresh Fruits & Vegetables (3 units)

Course Description: Overview of microorganisms on fresh produce, pre- and postharvest factors influencing risk of microbial contamination, attachment of microorganisms to produce, multiplication during postharvest handling and storage, and methods of detection. Mock outbreak trial and presentation of science-based forensic discovery.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 001C or BIS 002C; or equivalent.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 176 — Introduction to Weed Science (4 units)

Course Description: Weed biology and ecology, methods of weed management, biological control, herbicides and herbicide resistance. Weed control in managed and natural ecosystems; invasive species. Laws and regulations. Application of herbicides. Sight and software-assisted identification of common weeds.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 002 or BIS 001C or BIS 002C.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 2 hour(s), Discussion/Laboratory 4 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed PLB 176. (Former PLB 176.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Visual Literacy (VL).

PLS 178 — Biology & Management of Aquatic Plants (3 units)

Course Description: Brief survey of common and invasive fresh water plants and macroalgae, their reproductive modes, physiology, growth (photosynthesis, nutrient utilization), development (hormonal interactions), ecology, modes and impacts of invasion, and management. Two Saturday field trips required.

Prerequisite(s): (PLS 002 or BIS 001C or BIS 002C); (CHE 008B or CHE 118B); PLS 100C, PLB 111, ENH 102, or HYD 122 recommended.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed former PLB 178. (Former PLB 178.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 188 — Undergraduate Research Proposal (3 units)

Course Description: Preparation and review of a scientific proposal. Problem definition, identification of objectives, literature survey, hypothesis generation, design of experiments, data analysis planning, proposal outline and preparation.

Prerequisite(s): Upper division standing.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture/Discussion 3 hour(s).
  • Cross Listing: BIT 188.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Writing Experience (WE).

PLS 189L — Laboratory Research in Plant Sciences (2-5 units)

Course Description: Formulating experimental approaches to current questions in plant science; performance of proposed experiments.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 188; and consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Laboratory 3-12 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated 12 unit(s).
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.

PLS 190 — Seminar on Alternatives in Agriculture (2 units)

Course Description: Seminar on topics related to alternative theories, practices and systems of agriculture and the relationship of agriculture to the environment and society. Scientific, technological, social, political and economic perspectives.

Prerequisite(s): Upper division standing or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Seminar 1 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated 2 time(s) for a total of three times.
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE).

PLS 190C — Research Group Conference (1 unit)

Course Description: Weekly conference on research problems, progress and techniques in the plant sciences.

Prerequisite(s): Consent of instructor; advanced standing.

  • Learning Activities: Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated.
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.

PLS 192 — Internship (1-12 units)

Course Description: Work experience on or off campus in subject areas pertaining to plant and environmental sciences. Internship supervised by a faculty member.

Prerequisite(s): Consent of instructor; completion of 84 units.

  • Learning Activities: Internship 3-36 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated.
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.

PLS 193 — Garden & Farm-Based Experiential Education Methods (2 units)

Course Description: Methods of teaching children and youth about fruit and vegetable production and consumption. Lesson and activity planning for garden and farm field trips. Basic biology, ecology, plant science, and crop management practices. Mentorship in experiential learning. Preparation of garden site.

Prerequisite(s): Upper division standing or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 1 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Oral Skills (OL).

PLS 194H — Senior Honors Thesis (1-2 units)

Course Description: Independent study of selected topics under the direction of a member or members of the staff. Completion will involve the writing of a senior thesis.

Prerequisite(s): Senior standing; overall GPA of 3.250 or higher and consent of master advisor.

  • Learning Activities: Independent Study 3-6 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.
  • General Education: Science & Engineering (SE); Writing Experience (WE).

PLS 197T — Tutoring in Plant Sciences (1-5 units)

Course Description: Leading small voluntary discussion or lab groups affiliated with one of the department's regular courses.

Prerequisite(s): Consent of instructor; upper division standing, completion of course being tutored or the equivalent.

  • Learning Activities: Tutorial 1-5 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated 8 unit(s).
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.

PLS 198 — Directed Group Study (1-5 units)

Course Description: Directed group study.

  • Learning Activities: Variable 3-15 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated.
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.

PLS 199 — Special Study for Advanced Undergraduates (1-5 units)

Course Description: Special study for advanced undergraduates.

  • Learning Activities: Variable 3-15 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated.
  • Grade Mode: Pass/No Pass only.

PLS 205 — Experimental Design & Analysis (5 units)

Course Description: Introduction to the research process and statistical methods to plan, conduct and interpret experiments.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 120; or equivalent.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Discussion/Laboratory 2 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed AGR 205. (Former AGR 205.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.

PLS 206 — Applied Multivariate Modeling in Agricultural & Environmental Sciences (4 units)

Course Description: Multivariate linear and nonlinear models. Model selection and parameter estimation. Analysis of manipulative and observational agroecological experiments. Discriminant, principal component, and path analyses. Logistic and biased regression. Bootstrapping. Exercises based on actual research by UC Davis students.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 120; (STA 106 or STA 108 or PLS 205).

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have complete AGR 206. (Former AGR 206.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.

PLS 207 — Applied Statistical Modeling for the Environmental Sciences (3 units)

Course Description: Introduction to building statistical models in classical and Bayesian frameworks, model fitting methods, introduction to hierarchical Bayes, regularization and priors, applications of hierarchical Bayesian models to important kinds of problems of environmental data analysis.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 205 (can be concurrent); PLS 206 (can be concurrent); or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.

PLS 212 — Postharvest Biology & Biotechnology of Fruits & Nuts (3 units)

Course Description: Review of postharvest biology of fruits and nuts and biotechnological approaches to address postharvest challenges. Morphology, biology and postharvest handling of fruits and nuts are presented along with current research, including biotechnology, and discussion of future research needs and approaches.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 172.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed POM 212.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.

PLS 213 — Postharvest Physiology of Vegetables (3 units)

Course Description: Comparative physiology of harvest vegetables; emphasis on maturation, senescence, compositional changes, physiological disorders and effects of environmental factors. Concepts and research procedures.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 172 or PLS 100B or PLB 112.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 2 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed VCR 212. (Former VCR 212.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.

PLS 217 — Field Techniques in Plant Physiology (3 units)

Course Description: Hands-on practice applying a wide range of field-oriented plant physiology equipment and techniques. Use of water relations techniques, gas exchange devices, and image analysis, with extensive focus on dataloggers and sensing. Training in field-based plant physiology techniques intended to help students design research projects and appreciate the value and limitations of new equipment.

Prerequisite(s): Prior coursework in plant physiology such as PLS 100A, PLS 100CL, PLS 157, PLS 210, PLB 111 or similar.

  • Learning Activities: Discussion/Laboratory 2.50 hour(s), Extensive Problem Solving 1 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.

PLS 220 — Genomics & Biotechnology of Plant Improvement (3 units)

This version has ended; see updated course, below.
Course Description: Integration of modern biotechnology and classical plant breeding including the impact of structural, comparative and functional genomics on gene discovery, characterization and exploitation. Covers molecular markers, plant transformation, hybrid production, disease resistance, and novel output traits.

Prerequisite(s): BIS 101; or the equivalent.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed VCR 220. (Former VCR 220.)
  • Cross Listing: GGG 220.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • PLS 220 — Genomics & Biotechnology of Plant Improvement (3 units)
  • Course Description: Integration of modern biotechnology and classical plant breeding including the impact of structural, comparative and functional genomics on gene discovery, characterization and exploitation. Covers molecular markers, plant transformation, hybrid production, disease resistance, and novel output traits.
  • Prerequisite(s): BIS 101 or BIS 101V; or the equivalent.
  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed VCR 220. (Former VCR 220.)
  • Cross Listing: GGG 220.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • This course version is effective from, and including: Winter Quarter 2025.

PLS 221 — Genomics & Breeding of Vegetable Crops (3 units)

This version has ended; see updated course, below.
Course Description: Preview of genome structure, mapping, gene tagging and development of other genetic resources applied to improvement of major vegetables. For graduate students contemplating a career in modern vegetable breeding and biotechnology.

Prerequisite(s): BIS 101; or equivalent.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed VCR 221. (Former VCR 221.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • PLS 221 — Genomics & Breeding of Vegetable Crops (3 units)
  • Course Description: Preview of genome structure, mapping, gene tagging and development of other genetic resources applied to improvement of major vegetables. For graduate students contemplating a career in modern vegetable breeding and biotechnology.
  • Prerequisite(s): BIS 101 or BIS 101V; or equivalent.
  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s).
  • Credit Limitation(s): Not open for credit to students who have completed VCR 221. (Former VCR 221.)
  • Grade Mode: Letter.
  • This course version is effective from, and including: Winter Quarter 2025.

PLS 222 — Advanced Plant Breeding (4 units)

Course Description: Philosophy, methods, and problems in developing improved plant species. Topics include: inbreeding, heterosis, progeny testing, breeding methodology, index selection, germplasm conservation, and breeding for stress resistance. Laboratories include tours of breeding facilities and calculation and interpretation of quantitative data.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 154; PLS 205; GGG 201D or ANG 107 recommended.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Laboratory 3 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.

PLS 225 — Quantitative Genetics (4 units)

Course Description: Introduction to the principles of quantitative genetics including the study and analysis of quantitative variation, concepts of heritability and genetic gain from artificial selection, and application of classic and genome-informed approaches in breeding.

Prerequisite(s): PLS 205; GGG 201D; or consent of instructor; graduate standing.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s), Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Letter.

PLS 240 — Extension Education, Outreach & Science Communication (4 units)

Course Description: History, theory, and current practice of extension education. Role and skills needed of the extension educator. Pluralistic nature of extension education. Development of skills to create lasting change through outreach and communication in an extension education program.

Prerequisite(s): Graduate standing; or consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Lecture 3 hour(s); Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Enrollment Restriction(s): Open to graduate students only.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.

PLS 290 — Seminar (1-2 units)

Course Description: Topics of current interest related to Plant Sciences.

  • Learning Activities: Seminar 1-2 hour(s).
  • Grade Mode: Satisfactory/Unsatisfactory only.

PLS 290C — Research Conference (1 unit)

Course Description: Research conference.

Prerequisite(s): Consent of instructor.

  • Learning Activities: Discussion 1 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated.
  • Grade Mode: Satisfactory/Unsatisfactory only.

PLS 297T — Tutoring in Plant Sciences (1-5 units)

Course Description: Designed for graduate students who desire teaching experience but are not teaching assistants.

Prerequisite(s): Consent of instructor; graduate standing; completion of course to be tutored or the equivalent.

  • Learning Activities: Tutorial 1-5 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated 5 unit(s) and same course may not be tutored more than once.
  • Grade Mode: Satisfactory/Unsatisfactory only.

PLS 298 — Group Study (1-5 units)

Course Description: Group study.

  • Learning Activities: Variable.
  • Grade Mode: Letter.

PLS 299 — Research (1-12 units)

Course Description: Research.

  • Learning Activities: Variable 3-36 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated.
  • Grade Mode: Satisfactory/Unsatisfactory only.

PLS 396 — Teaching Assistant Training Practicum (1-4 units)

Course Description: Teaching assistant training.

Prerequisite(s): Consent of instructor; graduate standing.

  • Learning Activities: Variable 3-12 hour(s).
  • Repeat Credit: May be repeated.
  • Grade Mode: Satisfactory/Unsatisfactory only.